Introduction

History of India is believed to be amongst the grandest epics of the world history which dates back to ancient periods, nearly above 75, 000 years ago, which has witnessed the existence of Homo sapiens or the human race, as per historical evidence. The oldest human civilization in the country is the Indus Valley Civilization which thrived during 3300 and continued till 1300 BCE. The civilization was concentrated in the north-western portions of Indian subcontinent. The civilization with its main cities Mohenjadaro and Harappa flourished for over eight centuries. It is often said that `he who controls his past can control his future`. Hence knowledge of history is crucial for an individual`s growth.

The history of India is integrally related to the identity of the Indian diaspora and can be categorised into ancient, medieval and modern. While the ancient history deals with the gradual evolution of the civilisation, the medieval history narrates the tales of the rise of the native rulers, their administration, the rising fame of India and finally the Muslim and other foreign invasions. The history of the country is depicted in every religious texts and Hinduism relates about Indian civilisation.

Pre-Historic Period of India

The pre-historic era of the nation which existed around 7500 BC bore testimony to the Stone Age and also the Bronze Age. Over 5, 00, 000 to 2, 00, 000 years ago commenced the Stone Age. Various tools designed by humans during that time have been discovered at Tamil Nadu and north-western part of India. The Soan River Valley is the most ancient palaeolithic Site in India, followed by Mesolithic and Neolithic period which witnessed extensive human settlements 12, 000 years ago. Humans resided in Bhimbetka rock shelters, Madhya Pradesh 9, 000 years ago. Findings at Haryana (7500 BC), Mehrgarh (7000 BCE onwards which constitutes modern-day Pakistan) have revealed instances of Stone Age.

It was a Bronze Age civilization which collapsed at the beginning of the second millennium BCE and was followed by the Iron Age Vedic period. The civilisation extended over the Indo Gangetic Plains and witnessed the rise of major kingdoms such as the `Mahajanapadas`. Sources of history of India such as coins and coinage, manuscripts and ancient texts narrate the story of creation of the country. Lead, copper, bronze and tin handicrafts were produced during this time.

Early Historic Period of India

During the period from 1500 to 500 BCE, the Vedic Period existed which introduced the `Indo-Aryan` culture to India that comprised Vedic texts, composed in Sanskrit language. The Vedas are probably the oldest Indian texts which contain the basic tenets of Hinduism and other faiths. Major portions of the Gangetic Plain and northern India were nerve-centres of Vedic civilization. The concept of `Mahajanapadas` developed around 600 to 300 BCE, which implies a collection of many tiny kingdoms or `city states` which grew throughout India. Kamboja, Matsya, Kosala, Magadha, Assaka, Gandhara, Panchala, Avanti, Vatsa, Vajji or Vriji, Surasena, Kuru, Anga, Chedi, Malla and Kasi were the 16 Mahajanapadas which were born by 500 BCE. The period about 520 BCE and 320 BCE saw some Persian and Greek conquests, especially when King Porus occupied a large portion of Punjab and Alexander conquered the `Achaemenid Empire`. Chandragupta Maurya established the Maurya Dynasty which lasted from 322 to 185 BCE and attained greater heights during the rule of Ashoka.

This period also consists of the `Golden Age of India`, the regime of the mighty Gupta Empire which dates from 320 to 550 CE. The country excelled in spheres of religion, philosophy, mathematics, literature, arts, astronomy, science and technology and Hindu culture. The idea of `zero` and decimal system were invented at this time and the renowned rulers were Chandragupta I, Samudragupta, Chandragupta II and so on. Kalidasa, Aryabhata, Varahamihira and Vatsayana are amongst the noted scholars of the Gupta Age.

Medieval History of India
The Delhi Sultanate rose in power during the 12th and 13th centuries, wherein the former Slave Dynasty, Delhi captured enormous areas of land in northern India and Khilji Dynasty conquered large tracts of central India. Indian literature, architecture, music, costumes, religion, etc. achieved new dimensions with the unique Indo-Islamic fusion, which brought in a cultural renaissance. In 1526, Babur firmly installed the Mughal Dynasty in India which was highly prosperous till the death of Aurangzeb in 1707. Humayun, Akbar, Jahangir, Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb were considered to be the jewels of the Mughal Empire. They fought many battles among themselves to establish power and supremacy. The lion`s share of India was controlled by the Mughals which finally crumbled in 1857.

Post-Mughal History of India

India, during the post-Mughal period was ruled by the Marathas who rose to power quickly after the Mughals by 18th century, thanks to Shivaji, the legendary Maratha ruler of the Bhonsles. From 1720 to 1760, Marathas dominated and Prime Ministers called `Peshwas` controlled the reigns of the Maratha Empire. However, 1820 saw the decline of the Marathas as they were defeated by the British in three Anglo-Maratha Wars. North-western portions of the nation were reigned by the Sikhs who belonged to Khalsa faith, led by Maharaja Ranjit Singh. The Punjabi Kingdom thrived from 1799 till 1849, extending from Khybar Pass, Kashmir in the north till Sindh in south, and Himachal to the east. Their downfall followed after the first and second Anglo-Sikh War.

Modern History of India

Indo-European trade commenced in India following the discovery a sea route to the nation by Vasco da Gama in 1498. Portuguese, British and Dutch arrived and the Jahangir permitted British East India Company to carry out commercial activities here. Modern History of India is all about the British rule which lasted till 1947 from 1848, particularly after the Sepoy Mutiny in 1857. They tyrannized the entire country with their supremacy. Various thinkers, poet and reformists appeared at the moment to introduce a mass awakening programme against oppression by the British.

A saga of political, social and cultural upheavals led to the Indian independence movement. The history of India is steeped in courageous tales of Indian freedom fighters. Personalities like Bhagat Singh, Rajguru, Mangal Pandey, Jatindranath Mukherjee, Subash Chandra Bose, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Mahatma Gandhi and several others sacrificed everything to unchain their motherland from the barriers of colonisation. This long battle finally came to a halt with India achieving its independence on 15th August, 1947. However the independence left its indelible marks with the partition of India and the assassination of Mahatma Gandhi. Yet India moved on to establish itself as one of the most successful democracies in the world where an assortment of religions, cultures amalgamate, thus epitomizing unity in diversity.

Sources of History of India

Sources of history of India are significant tools for tracing the lifestyle and culture of India since ages. India has a rich and colourful history and it is a treasure trove of earliest chronicle. Different parts of the subcontinent have different histories and legends. Historians discover the historical aspects of various regions of the country through diverse sources. Indian history has a past of over thousands of years. The history of India is evident in several forms. Sources of history of India are the evidences that relate the origin of earliest civilisations, their culture and their beliefs. Sources are important to trace the ancient records. These are vital for the historians as they get their information about what happened in the past. The sources belong to two types, both written and non-written and throw light to the relevance of the historical facts. These sources comprise of coins and coinages, manuscripts, texts and the archaeological survey.

Indian Coins and Coinage
Indian coins and coinage is the one of the best sources of history of India. Coins provide information on the condition of country. Several coins are available that confirm the origin of earliest civilisation, kings and kingdoms. The coins of ancient times are made of gold, silver and copper and speak of the economic situation of that place in the period. Coins are essential that provide chronological information. These coins and coinage are the only source to provide idea of the Bactarian, Indo-Greeks and Indo-Parthian dynasty and the relation of the Roman Empire with the Indians. In addition to that coins also provide information on the coin artistry of India, various portraits and figures engraved on them and about the Hellenistic art. Dates, royal portraits and names of kings were usually engraved on the coins which help in understanding the era of different rulers and illuminate the hidden corners of Indian history. Dates and intrinsic value of coins narrate the evolution of the country`s economy. Religious and cultural condition of different eras can be deciphered by the type and shape of coins. Coins of Gupta dynasty have been discovered in large number and many of them were made of gold which showcases the Roman influence on India. During the period of Chandragupta II, Chaitya coins were the evidence of the relation with Sakas.

Indian Manuscripts
Among the copious sources of history of India, Indian manuscripts play a vital role and help in locating the earliest history of a place. The manuscripts are rich sources of written evidences. A manuscript is a document that is written by hand and offers information that is hand-recorded in other ways than writing. These constitute a variety of themes including textures and aesthetics, languages, scripts, calligraphies, illuminations and illustrations. These are written on metal, bark, palm leaf, cloth etc. Majority of these were written in Sanskrit language which forms the most versatile and rich source of history of India.

Ancient Texts of India
Ancient texts also provide abundant information about the ancient rulers, their supremacy and their reign. They also provide an idea about the lifestyle of ancient era. The four Vedas- Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda and Atharva Veda belong to the ancient Indian texts. Other ancient texts comprise of the Brahmanas, the Aryankas, the Upanishads, the Epics Ramayana and Mahabharata, the Brahmashastras and the Puranas.

Archaeology of India
Archaeology of India is the scientific study of the remains of the past. This study is considered to be essential among the sources of history of India. It is the study of buildings, monuments and other material relics. Excavations are conducted at various sites in the country to collect facts about the past details of the country. For instance the archaeological survey at Taxila gives an idea about the Kushanas. The rock cut temples of Ajanta and Ellora and its sculptures and paintings are archaeological sources. The Archaeological Survey of India is the premier organization for the archaeological researches and protection of the cultural heritage of the nation. It forms one of the significant sources of history of India. The survey looks after the maintenance of ancient monuments and archaeological sites and remains of the country. The organization has a large work force of trained archaeologists, conservators, epigraphist, architects and scientists for conducting archaeological research projects throughout the country.

Foreign Accounts
Foreign travellers have also contributed a lot in forming important sources of history of India. Various information have been recorded by classical and Greek writers, right from the 6th Century when the Persians invaded the country. Persian domination of north western India has been recorded by Ctesias and Herodotus. Records of historians such as Onesicritus and Nearchus throw light on the Alexander`s invasion of north western India. `Indika` is a renowned book written by Megasthenes that narrates the social and political scenario of the country during the era of Chandragupta Maurya. Other well known works includes the book "Geography" written by Ptolemy and "Natural History" written by Pliny. An account of ports and harbours of ancient India can be found in "Periplus of the Erythraean Sea". With the spread of Buddhism in China, amicable relations developed between India and China. Many Chinese pilgrims and travellers have also left invaluable historical records which depicts the history of India. In 8th century, a number of Arabian scholars also visited India who have left several accounts on India.