Introduction

The Maurya Empire emerged as a vast Iron Age power in the Indian subcontinent, with its political and administrative center rooted in Magadha. Established by Chandragupta Maurya around 320 BCE, the empire expanded rapidly and endured in a loosely organized form until its decline in 185 BCE.  It was among the most organized and centrally regulated economic systems in ancient India. While agriculture formed the backbone of the economy, the empire actively encouraged industries, crafts, trade, and a structured taxation system under a robust administrative framework. Key sources such as Kautilya’s Arthashastra, Ashokan inscriptions, and Greek accounts, notably Megasthenes’ Indica, offer valuable insights into the Mauryan economy, highlighting the central role of revenue administration.

Revenue system of Mauryan Empire was devised by the prime minister of Chandragupta Maurya, Kautilya, also known as Chanakya. The principal items of revenue in the country were listed by Kautilya while describing the duties of the Samaharta (collector-general). Sannidhata was the term used for tax officer or the custodian of collected taxes. Sita was the term used to define the land applicable for revenue and Bhaga was the terminology used to denote tax. Sita lands are crown lands that are cultivated directly by the state through bonded laborers or hired workers. Goods produced by states were called rajapanya, and different categories of officials were stationed there to look after specific departments.

Revenues were charged upon the following:

·       A share of land output

·       Other dues and taxes levied on land including a water-rate. The water rate varied according to the nature of the land and crop

·       Tax on houses in towns.

·       Income from crown lands, from forests, from mines and manufacturers, some of them especially meant for monopoly businesses like salt, mining, and liquor, undertaken by the empire

·       Customs at the frontiers and tariffs, tolls and ferry dues in the interior levied on merchandise in transport

·       Profits of coinage and gains from trade operations carried on by the empire

·       Fees for licenses of various kinds imposed on artisans, craftsmen, professionals and traders

·       Fines levied in law courts

·       Industries were taxed, using a vast mix of techniques, all of which were derived from the original land revenue tax system.

·       Miscellaneous receipts like gift or transferred possession.

·       Collected at trade routes and city gates.

Exemptions in Revenue

In emergency ‘benevolences’ were resorted and the rich had to pay considerable amounts to the state. Mauryas introduced images with a view to gain gold. Granting exemptions from payment of revenue was common particularly land-revenue to Brahmins and religious institutions and to state-officials. A register of such remissions and assignments was maintained.

Impact of Revenue System on Mauryan Empire

As the taxation system developed, the state had money to further develop the kingdom. The government also introduced state owned farms where the king owned the land and his subjects were employed for its cultivation. The government had the resources to organize the procedure and once the land was ready, it would employ the cultivator to work on the land.

The Mauryas had developed extensive trade relations. There were many foreign traders who took up residence in Mauryan cities. There were a variety of goods being exported thereby generating revenue. The exports were items of luxury like fine muslin cloth. The development of trade became profitable for the empire and eventually a separate department looked after trade and commerce.

State-sponsored irrigation initiatives played a significant role in enhancing agricultural productivity. One of the most notable engineering achievements of the Mauryan Empire was Sudarshan Lake, originally constructed under Chandragupta Maurya and later repaired by Rudradaman. During the process of agrarian expansion, communities such as shepherds and hunters contributed by clearing forests and bringing new land under cultivation.

Land or Agricultural Revenue Under Mauryan Empire

Land revenues from the rural areas were appropriated in the form of crown lands (sita), land revenue (bhaga) from cultivators, taxes on orchards, ferry charges and so on.

Different types of taxes that were imposed on rural population such as:
Bhaga: It was levied at the rate of one-fourth to one-sixth. Sharecroppers and other agricultural support by the state had to pay half of the produce to the state.
Pindikara: It was a tax levied on groups of villages and paid by farmers. This was customary. Often the villages were supposed to supply provisions to the royal army when they pass through their respective territories.
Hiranya - It was a tax paid in cash.
Bali – This was a compulsory offering later converted into tax. This was popular in the Vedic times and continued under the Mauryas.
Udakabhaga: Tax for irrigation facilities.
Pranaya - This literally means a gift of affection. It was imposed by the state during emergency. This was first mentioned by Panini. It was elaborated upon for the first time in Arthashastra. Pranaya amounted to one-third or one-fourth of the produce according to the nature of the soil.

Non-Agricultural or Industrial Revenue Under Mauryan Empire

The Mauryan economy was not constrained by an agricultural ceiling, allowing complementary sectors to expand alongside farming. Industries such as mining, metallurgy, textiles, and various crafts flourished, particularly under wartime conditions. Many of these industries operated as state monopolies, enabling the empire to derive revenue directly.

Mining was among the most critical state-controlled sectors, as resources such as gold, diamonds, copper, and iron were vital to royal authority. Key mining centers, including Suvarnagiri near present-day Kolar, were placed under direct state management. Similarly, the production of salt and liquor remained under state monopoly, with taxes levied on their manufacturing and distribution. Given their widespread consumption, these commodities provided a steady and reliable source of revenue for the state.

The Mauryan administration also employed skilled craftsmen, including armorers, shipbuilders, stonemasons, and other artisans, who served the state directly. In recognition of their services, these craftsmen were exempted from taxation. Economic organization was further strengthened through guilds, or shrenis, which brought together merchants and artisans and exercised significant control over trade regulation, quality standards, and early banking activities.

Coinage played an essential role in facilitating trade, with minting supervised by an official known as the Rupadarshaka. Mauryan punch-marked silver coins circulated widely, supporting both internal commerce and external trade networks.

Different Means of Taxation

Import tax was 20 per cent but there is no exact knowledge about the export tax. Import tax was called prabeshya and export tax was called nishkramya.

The Sulkadhyaksha or sales tax was collected on every item before it was sold or purchased. There were three rates of sale tax:

·       9.5 per cent on items sold on the basis of calculation

·       5 per cent on the items sold on the basis of measurement

·       6.5 per cent on items sold on the basis of weight.

The following taxes were imposed in cities

(i) wine manufacturing tax

(ii) salt manufacturing tax

(iii) taxes on ghee, oil and edible oil

(iv) taxes on animal slaughterers

(v) taxes on artisans and artists

(vi) taxes on gamblers and gambling houses

(vii) taxes on prostitution

(viii) taxes on the income of temples

(ix) taxes on additional incomes of the wage earners.

Trade Under Mauryan Empire

The Mauryan domain maintained an extensive network of internal and external trade, supported by careful planning and well-developed infrastructure. Internal trade routes linked major urban centers such as Pataliputra, Ujjain, and Taxila with regional and local markets, facilitating the exchange of goods including textiles, beads, ivory, and pottery.

Externally, the empire engaged in long-distance commerce, exporting commodities such as cotton, silk, ivory, pearls, and spices, while importing horses, gold, wine, and other luxury items.

Maritime trade also flourished, with ports like Bhrigukaccha (modern-day Bharuch) serving as important hubs for overseas exchange.

The administration exercised close oversight over commercial activities. Shipbuilding, navigation, and maritime trade were supervised by the Navadhyaksha, while market regulation fell under the authority of the Panyadhyaksha, the Director of Commerce, who was responsible for price control, preventing fraud, and ensuring fair trade practices. Strict fiscal discipline characterized the system, with one-tenth of commercial profits levied as tax, and severe penalties including capital punishment.