Geographically, the Indus Valley Civilisation covered Pakistan, the states of Rajasthan and Punjab, the valleys of Narmada and Tapti in Gujarat, with intrusions into the upper Ganga-Yamuna Doab. Together they constitute an area of about 8,40,000 square miles, which is much vaster than that of any contemporary civilisation elsewhere. Hailed as the land of urban culture, Indus Valley has captured the imagination of historians and common people alike. Mystery surrounds its origins, its culture and its decline.

History often narrates tales of fierce strifes that are integrally related with the establishment of a new empire. But amazingly, the inception of Indus Valley civilisation is devoid of any kind of battles. The Indus Valley people rather made deals, not war, and created a stable, peaceful, and prosperous culture. The Harappan Civilization has significance for not only historians and archaeologists but for the common man also. It was best known for its spectacular city planning and had surpassed all other contemporary civilizations.

The earliest mention of the Indus Valley Civilisation is found in the works of Charles Masson in 1842. In 1856 while laying a railway track, British engineers came across an ancient city. They used the bricks from the ruined city to build the railway bed. Finally it was Alexander Cunningham, the director of the Archeological Survey of British India, who presented to the world a seal from this ancient civilisation. In the year 1920, Indian archeologists Dayaram Sahani and R.D Bannerjee undertook excavations on one of these mounds in Harappa. The archaeologists expected to find something, but never imagine that a city lay beneath the earth. Further excavation at different places in India and Pakistan, led to discovery of another large city Mohenjodaro and the recovery of at least eighty villages and towns related to this newly discovered civilization. They named it Harappan after the first city they discovered.

Origin & People of Indus Valley Civilisation
As far as the origin of the word Indus is concerned, Scholars are of the opinion that the name Indus is the origin of the word Hindu. The original Indian name of the river is Sindhu. The Greeks referred to the river as the "Indos," and the later Arabs referred to it as "al-Hind." Eventually the name came to be applied to the people of the subcontinent, namely, the "Hindi," the "Hindus" and the "Indians." In ancient times Indians themselves referred to their country as Bharata-varsha (the "land of the sons of Bharata," a ruler), It is believed that the Indus valley civilization belonged to the copper stone age as the presence of iron tools and implements has not yet been established at any part of this civilization.

Town Planning in Indus Valley Civilisation
The twin cities of Mohenjodaro and Harappa were center of all activities. Both cities were a mile square, with defensive outer walls. Cities were divided into lower dwellings and the citadel housed important buildings. Most of these buildings were built with burnt or mud bricks and stones.

Language in Indus Valley Civilisation
It is difficult to be sure about the language that the Harappan people spoke. The scholars have not been able to decipher the language of the Harappans. Sir John Marshall was the first to suggest that the language of the Indus Civilization was Dravidian. Most scholars agreed with Marshall. On the other hand, Piero Meriggi suggested that they used Brahvi language. This is still used in Baluchistan.

It is believed that their writing was a pictographic script, or at least seems to be. The script seems to have had about 400 basic signs, with many variations. The sign probably stood forwards and for syllables. The direction of the writing was generally from right to left. Most of the inscriptions were found on seals and sealings. The seals were probably used in trade and also for official and administrative work. So the Harappans seem to have used writing mainly for these sorts of things. A lot of the inscribed material was found at different Harappan site.

Religion in Indus Valley Civilisation
Scholars are unable to draw a conclusion regarding the religion of Indus people. Unlike Mesopotamia or Egypt, there were no such buildings discovered so that we can conclude it might be a temple or involve any kind of public worship. However some historians are of the opinion that Harappan people were Hindus. In view of the female terracotta figurines found at sites, it may be opined that the Indus people believed in the different types of mother goddesses.

Science and Astronomy in Indus Valley Civilisation
The Harappan people knew the measuring tools of length, mass, and time. They were the first in the world in developing a system of uniform weights and measures. Their measurements were extremely precise. Their smallest division, which was marked on an ivory scale found in Lothal, was approximately 1.704mm, the smallest division ever recorded on a scale of the Bronze Age.

Occupation & Trade of Indus People
Trade was well-regulated. The standard of weights was fixed. The people sold agricultural products in exchange for metal, stone implements, steatite, gold ornaments and other things. Moreover, there were massive granaries in each city. The Indus River valley was quite fertile when the Harappans thrived there. Many of the Harappan seals had pictures of animals that imply a wet and marshy environment, such as rhinoceroses, elephants, and tigers. Cows, goats, buffaloes, cats, sheep, camels, dogs, etc were the domestic animals.

Social Life in Indus Valley Civilisation
In Indus valley civilization, the society was divided into three distinct social groups. One group ruled and administered the city, the other group included the merchants who were associated with trade and other business activities in the city. The third group was that of the labourers who worked in the city. They also included the farmers who cultivated wheat and barley as their main crops. For transport of men and goods double-ox carts must have been in use. Excepting the camel, the usual beasts of burden were known. The horse was also known by the beginning of the first millennium B.C. Terracotta cart frames and wheels with and without hubs have been found.

Jewellery was hugely worn by both men and women of Indus Valley civilisation. The pieces of ornaments were primarily made of gold, copper and silver. Necklaces, armlets and rings were common jewelleries for men. On the other hand women decked themselves up with earrings, necklaces, anklets, bangles, girdles, bracelets and others. Ivory products like combs were also popular with the people of this civilisation. Besides these, people enjoyed playing in dice and marble. Gambling was a favourite past time of the elder members in the society.

Art and Craft of Indus Valley Civilisation
The patterns that the craft traditions in India were to take and which were to survive for years appear already mature and firmly established in the cities of the Indus valley. The Indus people were expert craftsmen. Dancing, painting, sculpture, and music were all part of Indus culture. Though statues are abundantly found but stone, bronze or terracotta ones have been excavated.

Decline of Indus Valley Civilization
By about 1700 BC, the Harappan culture was on the verge of decline. The causes of its decline are not certain. The physical existence of the civilization ended due to various factors.

Ecological changes led to the decline of land and agriculture, thereby enforcing the need to evacuate to other area might have been the reason for the disintegration of the Indus valley. Shifts in the monsoon pattern and changes in temperature led to the area more arid.

Increase in population, excessive deforestation, decline in agriculture etc. might have created economic problems leading to the gradual decay of the culture. The marked decline in the quality of building and town planning indicates that the authorities were losing control.

The changes in the river flow patterns and correspondent widespread flooding would have disrupted the agricultural base.

The invasion of the Aryans is the other view that is said to be another reason which might have also led to the decline of the Indus valley.

Thus, most brilliant civilisation of the ancient world disintegrated.