Introduction

Mountain soils are mainly found in hill slopes and are formed by deposition of organic matter from woodlands and forests. Mountain soils are generally located in the dry and cold districts like Ladakh, Lahaul and Spiti District, Kinnaur District etc. Mountains soils are mostly found in the Himalayan regions, Sikkim, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh and Kashmir and also in the Peninsula, Eastern Ghats and the summits of Sahyadris. There is a huge variety of soils in the Himalaya Mountain ranges and mountain soils are one among such diverse varieties. Further, in the river valleys as well as on the river terraces, alluvial soils are found but across the slopes, one generally comes across soils of different textures. Fine textured soils are mainly found in the river valleys or in the outwash plains. In other parts of these hilly districts, soils are in general stony and shallow but are poor in organic matter.

Features of Mountain Soils

The basic character of the mountain soils depends on the climate and are mainly found in the warm temperate belt or the cool temperate belt of the Himalayan Mountains. Brown forest soil is mainly found in the warm temperate belt lying at heights ranging from 900 to 1800 metres, which has deciduous forests. This belt comprises enough warmth for decomposition of vegetation. The typical brown forest soil of this zone is rich in humus and is deep. Further, mountain soils are rich in humus, slightly acidic and are fertile. Mountain soils are also deprived in lime and potash content. They are largely used for raising different varieties of crops.

Types of Mountain Soil

Mountain soils are commonly found across India’s valleys and hill slopes. They are typically classified according to the vegetation they support and are characterized by a wide carbon–nitrogen ratio. These soils range from silty loam to loam in texture and usually appear dark brown in colour.

Mountain soils vary in texture and characteristics depending on the specific mountain environment in which they occur, especially in relation to rainfall, slope, and altitude.

Mountain Soil in Forest regions:
In forested areas with adequate rainfall, the texture of mountain soils is shaped by the surrounding environment. These soils tend to be coarse-grained on the upper slopes, while the valley sides feature loamy and silty soils. 

Mountain Soils in Snowbound Areas:
In the snow-covered regions of the Himalayas, mountain soils experience continuous denudation. As a result, they are generally acidic and low in humus. However, the soils found in the lower valleys of these regions are comparatively fertile. These soils are also referred to as forest soils. 

Mountain Soils on Slopes:
In areas with steep slopes, heavy rainfall, and high humidity, mountain soils support dense vegetation. Peaty soils in these regions are rich in humus and organic matter. Typically, heavy and black in colour, these soils can also be alkaline in several locations. They are commonly found in southern Uttarakhand, northern Bihar, and parts of West Bengal.

Podozolised Soils of the Mountains
Podzol is the characteristic soil of cool wet temperate zone with coniferous forests. Almost above an altitude of 1800 metres, brown forests soil grades into Podozolised soils. At this belt with Podzol soil, vegetation is comparatively low because of low temperature and thick forests. This mountain soil is a bit highly leached soil and acidic in reaction. It is poorly fertile too. 

Alpine Meadow Soil
Alpine meadow soil is a dark-coloured thin soil mainly found in the Alpine zone of the Himalayan Mountain range. It is basically sandy and contains un-decomposed plants. Mountain soils are deficient in nitrogen content. This mineral is very significant to a healthy soil. Quality and quantity of mountain soil is already compromised as a result of the instable pattern of monsoon rainfall. However, soil formation is quite slow in mountain areas because of the low temperatures. Thus, mountain soils are comparatively thin and are badly anchored.

Distribution of Mountain Soil in India

Mountain soil covers less than 6 percent of the total soil area of India. These soils are typically found at elevations above 900 metres, occurring across the Himalayas, the Himalayan foothills, and the mountain slopes of the Western Ghats, as well as in the Nilgiri, Annamalai, and Cardamom hills.

Mountain Soil of the Himalayas

Himalayan soils are highly varied, often coarse-grained on the upper slopes and loamy in the valleys. While they tend to be rich in humus, they are generally deficient in potash, phosphorus, and lime. These soils are usually acidic, thin, and shallow, with poorly developed horizons, and their properties shift noticeably with changes in altitude and local climate. Despite these limitations, they support diverse crops, ranging from tea and coffee in the southern regions to wheat, maize, and temperate fruits across the Himalayan belt.

Mountain Soil of the Western Ghats

The mountain soils of the Western Ghats are predominantly laterite soils, formed under conditions of high temperature and heavy rainfall. These soils contain abundant iron and aluminum oxides but are low in nitrogen and organic matter. Although leaching reduces their natural fertility, they can be made productive for plantation crops such as tea, coffee, and spices with adequate manuring and irrigation.

Mountain Soil of the Eastern Ghats

The mountain soils of the Eastern Ghats are largely laterite, especially across the summits, though red, black, and alluvial soils also appear in different parts of the range. Laterite soils develop under conditions of high rainfall and temperature, making them rich in iron and aluminum but often infertile due to leaching. With proper manuring, however, they can support plantation crops such as tea and coffee.

Mountain Soil of the Nilgiris

The Nilgiri hills are dominated by lateritic soil and red loam, alongside red sandy, black, alluvial, and colluvial soils in various areas. These soils are distinguished by a thick, organic-rich topsoil found in the highlands, which is classified internationally as Andisols.

Mountain Soil of the Annamalai Ranges

The mountain soils of the Annamalai Ranges are mainly mottled red and brown and are generally classified as a form of laterite. Their texture ranges from sandy to clayey loam. Owing to the dense forest cover, these soils are typically rich in humus but may lack nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus, particularly in the heavily leached upland areas.

Because of the sloping terrain and the soil’s composition, drainage is rapid, making the region prone to soil erosion. The parent material originates from the weathering of metamorphic gneiss interspersed with feldspar and quartz, and soil formation is strongly influenced by the hot, humid climate and heavy monsoon rainfall. The well-drained, humus-rich soils of the Annamalai uplands are well suited for tropical plantation crops, and the region is widely known for its cultivation of tea, coffee, rubber, and cardamom.

Mountain Soil of the Vindhya Range

The Vindhya Range is a complex, discontinuous system of mountain ridges, hills, highlands, and plateau escarpments in west-central India. Its mountain soils are primarily classified as Forest and Mountain soils, commonly found along the forested slopes. These soils are rich in organic matter and minerals and support diverse plant growth.

The range is composed of sedimentary rocks such as sandstone, limestone, and shale, which is the reason the soil quality varies across the region. In suitable pockets, the soil can support high-value crops like saffron, almonds, and apples, although crop suitability depends heavily on local conditions. The dense forests covering the slopes help maintain soil fertility by continuously enriching the ground with decomposing organic material.

Mountain Soil of the Satpura Range

The mountain soils of the Satpura Range are notably diverse, shaped by the underlying rock formations and local topography. The region features laterite soils that are rich in iron and common on the hills, as well as soils formed from trap and other rocks that support varied forest types. Gentler slopes and riverbanks tend to have deeper, well-drained soils, while the steeper sections are marked by shallow soils with frequent rock exposure. Flat hilltops may also contain sufficiently deep soil deposits. Together, these soil types create favourable conditions for cultivating crops such as tapioca, cashew nuts, coffee, and rubber.

Mountain Soil of the Aravalli Range

The soils of the Aravalli Range are generally infertile, consisting mainly of rudimentary, red, and lateritic types that are poorly suited for intensive agriculture. Formed from ancient granite and gneiss, the region’s terrain is rocky and mineral-rich, but years of mining and erosion have further degraded the soil, contributing to environmental challenges and reduced crop productivity. Restoration efforts, such as the Aravalli Green Wall initiative, are underway to improve soil health through large-scale afforestation and measures to combat land degradation.

Mountain Soil of the Cardamom Hills

The mountain soils of the Cardamom Hills are predominantly forest loam, typically acidic with a pH between 5.5 and 6.5. Derived from granitic bedrock, they range from sandy clayey loam to loam in texture and are rich in humus, with medium to high potassium levels and low to medium phosphorus content. These soils also contain high organic carbon, particularly in natural forest areas where organic matter is more abundant than in cultivated cardamom plantations. Their humus-rich composition, balanced nutrients, and favourable texture make them especially well-suited for cultivating cardamom.

Agriculture in Mountain Soil

The different location of mountain soil, especially on slopes provides excellent air and water drainage, making it particularly suitable for crops that require such conditions. As a result, these soils are commonly used for rubber and bamboo plantations, along with tea, coffee, and various fruit crops.

 

In many areas, shifting agriculture is also practised, though soil fertility tends to decline after two to three years. Due to the limited scope for extensive agriculture, silvi-pastoral farming, which is combining forest resources with grasses, can be sustainably maintained. 

The parched, sandy soils of the mountains sometimes include wind-borne loess. With irrigational facilities these soils are found to render beneficial harvests. The mountain soils are a mix of peat, meadow, forest and soils. The forest soils on the mountains can be described as soils in the making. Various types of crops are cultivated on this type of soil like coffee, tea, wheat, maize, barley, tropical fruits and various types of spices.

Conservation of Soil

Owing to the extensive variety of fertile soil, India is able to turn out a variety of crops. It is important because this potential can make India not only self-reliant in agricultural produce, but also a leading exporter of countless agricultural products. This would, however depend on scientific management of the soil, their right conservation, evasion of their erosion and upkeep of their fertility through bio-manures, rather than depending wholly on chemical fertilisers.

This is obvious from the fact that almost nine million hectares of alluvial soil and seven million hectares of black soil are presently suffering from salinity and alkalinity. Much of it is owes to water logging and unreasonable irrigation. Perceiving the importance of mountain soil as a priceless supply, measures have been taken to resist soil erosion, caused by running water and winds. Conservation of soil is compulsory to guarantee sustained productivity of land.