Introduction

Kanishka I, often revered as Kanishka the Great, stands out as one of the most prominent rulers of the Kushana Empire, a dynasty that flourished in the early centuries. Under his dynamic leadership, the Kushana realm reached its territorial and cultural zenith, extending from the heart of Central Asia through the historic regions of Gandhara and deep into the Gangetic plains, encompassing cities like Pataliputra.

A direct descendant of Kujula Kadphises, the empire’s founding patriarch, Kanishka inherited not just a kingdom but a legacy. His reign marked a golden period for the Kushanas, as he strengthened the empire through military campaigns and strategic governance. His capitals reflected the cultural and administrative heartbeats of the empire—Purusapura (modern-day Peshawar) in the northwest, and Mathura in northern India. Interestingly, coins bearing his image and inscriptions have also been unearthed in Tripuri, now known as Jabalpur, pointing to the vastness of his influence.

Kanishka’s era is perhaps best remembered for its deep spiritual significance. A patron of Mahayana Buddhism, he played a key role in the expansion of the faith beyond Indian borders. His support for Buddhist scholars and institutions helped facilitate the spread of Mahayana teachings along the Silk Road, reaching as far as China through the treacherous passes of the Karakoram range. This cultural transmission not only enriched Buddhism but also turned his empire into a hub of spiritual and scholarly exchange.

In a significant administrative move around 127 CE, Kanishka replaced Greek with Bactrian as the official language of governance, growing Central Asian identity of his empire. This decision also reflected the empire's broader transition from Hellenistic influences toward a uniquely Kushana cultural and linguistic framework.

While earlier scholars once linked Kanishka’s accession to 78 CE, believed to be the origin point of the Saka era, more recent research, notably by scholar Harry Falk, places his rise to power around 127 CE. This updated chronology better aligns with archaeological and numismatic evidence.

Kanishka’s Conquests and Political Achievements

Kanishka significantly expanded the empire’s reach through a series of strategic military campaigns and savvy political maneuvers. When he ascended the throne, the empire already encompassed key regions such as Afghanistan, Gandhara, Sindh, and Punjab. Later, under his command, the Kushana realm pushed far beyond these initial borders, ultimately becoming one of the most influential empires of its time.

Among his early achievements was the conquest of Magadha, a powerful kingdom in eastern India. This victory allowed him to extend his dominion deep into the Gangetic plains, reaching all the way to important spiritual and cultural centers like Pataliputra and Bodh Gaya. According to Kalhana, the 12th-century historian of Kashmir, Kanishka also invaded and took control of Kashmir, so influential was his presence there that a town named Kanishkapura (modern-day Kanispora) near the Baramulla Pass still carries echoes of his legacy. The widespread discovery of Kanishka's coins in cities such as Mathura, Sravasti, Kausambi, and Benares further attests to his control over large portions of northern India.

Kanishka’s military ambitions weren’t limited to the Indian subcontinent. In the north, he turned his attention to Central Asia and China. His initial expedition against the Chinese met with defeat at the hands of General Ban Chao’s son, Pan Chou. Undeterred, Kanishka launched a second campaign, successfully defeating Pan Chou’s son, Panyang, and annexing the territories of Kashgar, Yarkand, and Khotan, strategically crucial regions along the Silk Road. Though Chinese sources like the Hou Hanshu detail Kushan retreats due to scorched-earth tactics employed by Ban Chao, the presence of Kanishka’s coins in the Tarim Basin suggests a strong, though contested, Kushan presence in the region. 

Kanishka's empire eventually stretched from southern Uzbekistan and Tajikistan in the northwest, across the fertile plains of northern India, to the spiritual heartlands of eastern India. From Gandhara in the west to Benares in the east, and from the highlands of Kashmir to the central Indian region of Malwa, his rule stitched together diverse regions into a cohesive imperial fabric. 

The twin cities of Purushapura (modern-day Peshawar) and Mathura served as the administrative and cultural hubs of his empire. But more than just a military conqueror, Kanishka understood the value of economic control. One of his primary political goals appears to have been to dominate the trade routes, both land and sea that connected South Asia to Rome. By securing the Silk Road and extending influence over Central Asian trade centers, he turned the Kushana Empire into a crucial link between East and West.

Economic Achievements of Kanishka

Kanishka, while best known for his military conquests and patronage of Buddhism, also left a lasting legacy in the realm of economics. His reign marked a flourishing period of trade, cultural exchange, and monetary innovation that helped shape the commercial landscape of ancient Eurasia.

One of the most significant indicators of Kanishka’s economic prowess lies in his coinage. His coins were not just mediums of exchange, they were powerful symbols of imperial identity and religious inclusivity. Early coins from his reign featured Greek legends and depictions of Greek gods, reflecting the lingering Hellenistic influence from earlier Indo-Greek rulers. However, as his reign progressed, Kanishka introduced a new monetary language- Bactrian, an Eastern Iranian language written in the Greek script. This shift represented both a cultural assertion and a political statement, aligning the empire more closely with Central Asian and Iranian traditions.

Along with the change in language, the imagery on Kanishka's coins evolved to reflect a broader spiritual landscape. Greek deities gave way to Iranian and Indic gods, including figures from Zoroastrian and Hindu traditions, as well as local and regional deities. Coins during Kanishka’s rule even featured Sumero-Elamite deities. This syncretic approach not only reflected Kanishka’s tolerance and inclusivity but also appealed to the diverse population across his vast empire from Central Asia to northern India. It also helped facilitate smoother trade by creating a shared monetary system that resonated with multiple cultural and religious groups.

The artistic detail on Kanishka’s coins is also worth noting. The emperor is typically shown in regal attire with long coat, trousers gathered at the ankle, rounded boots, and a sword at his side with flames emanating from his shoulders, symbolizing divine favor or supernatural power. In many depictions, he stands before an altar, performing a sacrifice, reinforcing his image as both a warrior-king and a spiritual leader. This iconography added a sense of legitimacy and authority to the currency, enhancing public trust and acceptance.

Beyond coinage, the reach of Kanishka's economy extended through control of major trade routes. His empire sat at the crossroads of the Silk Road, linking the Roman Empire in the west to China in the east. By maintaining influence over vital trade hubs such as Kashgar, Yarkand, and Khotan, he ensured the smooth flow of goods, ideas, and culture through his territory. This brought immense wealth into the empire and turned cities like Mathura and Purushapura into thriving centers of commerce and art.

Tragically, a life-size limestone relief of Kanishka—depicting him in his distinctive attire—once housed in the Kabul Museum, was destroyed by the Taliban. Though the artifact was lost, its existence served as a powerful example of the grandeur and sophistication of Kanishka’s reign.

Achievements of Kanishka with Buddhism

Achievements of Kanishka bought the spreading of Buddhism after Ashokan period. Kanishka, the famous king of the Kushana dynasty, was born of mixed race. But he became an Indian because of his long acquaintance with the people and culture of the land. Kanishka transformed into a devoted Buddhist during the course of his reign. The coins of Kanishka pointed to the gradual alteration of his religious beliefs initiated with pantheism and culminating in adoption of Buddhism. There are various legends depicting the story of Kanishka`s conversion.

Religious Policy of Kanishka
Historians depend on the legends to determine the religious policy of Kanishka. According to such a legend, the influence of the great scholar Asvaghosa led to the conversion of Kanishka. After occupying Pataliputra, Kanishka came in contact with Asvaghosa. Kanishka was quite impressed with the teachings of Asvaghosa. Asvaghosa accompanied him to Peshawar and introduced him to the Buddhist creed. Though a dedicated Buddhist himself, Kanishka was not a bigot. He was equally tolerant towards the other religious creeds, which are evident from the figures of various Hindu, Persian and Greek deities, found on his coins. Some scholars however suggests that these figures are not conclusive proofs of the religious toleration of Kanishka, rather the coins can be considered merely a token, which indicates the diversity of religious beliefs and ideas within his Empire.

The reign of Kanishka left a memorable mark in the history of ancient India, particularly for his patronage to the religion of Sakyamuni. Ashoka devoted his life for the spread of the Hinyana creed while Kanishka devoted himself to the service of the Mahayana creed. Different scholars have approached different theories regarding the actual date of Kanishka`s conversion into Buddhism. Some scholars are of the view that Kanishka embraced Buddhism during the first era of his reign. Sten Konow, a Norwegian Indologist, had come to this conclusion after reading a date in the Peshawar casket information. B.N Mukherjee, an Indian historian, has suggested that the Peshawar casket information did not bear any date. However, it is generally believed that Kanishka embraced Buddhism after his invasion of Pataliputra, where he came under the influence of the Buddhist scholar Asvaghosa.

Fourth Buddhist Council Under Kanishka`s Rule
During Kanishka, the famous Fourth Buddhist council was convoked at Kundalavana Vihara. Though there are enough controversies among the scholars about the actual location of Kundalavana Vihara, it is generally believed that Kundalavana Vihara was located in Kashmir. A selected body of scholars participated in the council. The fourth Buddhist council was organised under the patronage of Kanishka, which was headed by scholars like Vasumitra and Asvaghosa.

The Convocation of the first Buddhist council marked the ascendancy of the Mahayana Buddhism with Sanskrit as its vehicle of propagation. Kanishka regarded Mahayana as his state religion. The state religion of Kanishka determined preaching the divinity of Gautama Buddha and the worship of Buddha’s image had a greater appeal compared to the dry, scholastic Hinyana creed. Mahayanism, the state religion of Kanishka preached not only the divinity of Buddha and worshipped the image of Buddha, but they also preached the efficacy of prayer, devotion and faith. Salvation of entire universe was the idea of Mahayanism. Moreover, the medium of propagation of Buddhism was Sanskrit, which had some social significance. Kanishka undertook this step because at that time Sanskrit was considered an aristocratic language, which was more ornamental compared to the spoken language Pali. Therefore, with the use of Sanskrit as the medium of propagation, Kanishka intended to alienate Buddhism from the common masses.

Kanishka in his religious policy of Mahayanism discarded the doctrine of personal salvation by penance and ethical practices in order to be "self-illuminated". The religious policy of Kanishka stated that Bodhisatva would work for the salvation of all beings. Hence during the reign of Kanishka, people did not need to undergo hardship and penance in order to attain salvation. Kanishka replaced the worship of Buddhist Symbols like Buddha`s footprints, Dharmachakra, Stupa or Bodhi Tree by initiating the worship of Buddha and Bodhisattva images. 

Buddhism during Kanishka's Rule
The cult of Bodhisattva and the worship of Buddha images became widely prevalent in the Kushana period. One of the earliest figures of Buddha are found in Kanishka’s coins and in the Peshawar casket. The term "Bodhisattva" had a dual significance as it was upheld by the religious policy initiated by Kanishka. In one sense it meant a person worked for the salvation of the mankind. In the second sense it meant the previous incarnation of Buddha. Kanishka also undertook the policy of propagating his religion to the distant countries including Tibet, China, Burma and Japan. Historians have later presumed that since Kanishka had commanded over the major parts of Central Asia, his own creed of Mahayanism was spread to those countries. From the accounts of Hiuen Tsang and Al Beruni, it is known that Kanishka constructed the great relic tower at Peshawar, which was famous throughout the Buddhist world. The Greek architect Agelisas or Agisala constructed the tower. Mahayana Buddhism, as the state religion of the Kushanas received a great impetus.

Kanishka’s Reign as Indian Renaissance

Kanishka’s reign is often termed as Indian Renaissance, which witnessed fulfillment during the Gupta Age. Historians have opined that the Kushana age was the introduction to the Gupta Civilisation. Sanskrit was restored with a former glory after it had disappeared in obscurity post the rule of the Mauryas. Kanishka gave his royal patronage to the language. All the Mahayana scriptures were written in Sanskrit language. Galaxies of great scholars like Asvaghosa (the Buddhist Writer), Nagarjuna (the philosopher), Samgharaksha (the chaplain), Mathara (the politician), Vasumitra (the Buddhist scholar), Charaka (the physician) and Agisala (the engineer) adorned the court of Kanishka. Asvaghosa was not only a great philosopher but also a great poet and author of the famous epic ‘Buddha Charita’.

Asvaghosa also wrote "Sundarananda Kavya", which deals with the episodes of Buddha`s life. Asvaghosa at the same time wrote several philosophical treatises, which were of immense importance. "Sutralankara" was another important work composed by a scholar named Kumaralata in Taxila. Matricheta was another contemporary, who composed Buddhist hymns or Stotras, which were quite popular in Central Asia and Tibet. Nagarjuna was a competent exponent of Mahayana philosophy. Learning and literature were augmented due to the patronage of the Kushana king Kanishka.

Art and Architecture Under Kanishka

Kanishka’s reign was not only a pinnacle of political and economic strength but also a defining era for art and architecture, particularly in the context of Buddhist expression. His patronage of religious architecture and sculpture played a vital role in shaping the visual culture of ancient India and Central Asia.

Four eminent schools of art received great impetus during his reign. These were Sarnath, Mathura, Amaravati and Gandhara. Among the four schools, the Gandhara School of Art received a thriving prosperity during the reign of Kanishka. In art, Kanishka’s reign was marked with the growth of two distinct styles, one Indian and another exotic. The Indian style was represented by the headless statue of Kanishka at Mathura and the image of Buddha found at Sarnath. The exotic school known as Gandhara art was Greco-Roman art applied to the Buddhist subjects found in the Gandhara region.

One of the most remarkable contributions of Kanishka’s time was the flourishing of Buddhist art, especially the emergence of Bodhisattva statues that came to define the Mathura school. These statues, characterized by robust features, elaborate drapery, and spiritual symbolism, reflect a distinctly Indian aesthetic fused with Kushan imperial influence. The Art of Mathura during his reign produced some of the earliest and most iconic representations of Buddhist figures in anthropomorphic form, marking a shift from symbolic representations like the Bodhi tree or the Dharma wheel to human-like depictions of the Buddha and Bodhisattvas.

While Mathura served as a major artistic hub in the south of his empire, the northwestern region of Gandhara, known for its Greco-Buddhist style, also saw significant architectural activity under Kanishka’s rule. Sculptures from this region, bearing Hellenistic artistic features like realistic drapery and classical proportions, often include inscriptions dated to what is now understood as the Yavana era (circa 186–175 BCE). Though these artifacts predate Kanishka, their continued development and adaptation during his reign suggest his support for maintaining and enriching Gandharan traditions.

Kanishka’s architectural patronage extended beyond sculpture to monumental religious structures. Though few large-scale architectural remnants can be directly tied to him, historical accounts and archaeological evidence suggest that he commissioned significant Buddhist stupas, columns, and monasteries across his empire. The most famous among them was the Kanishka Stupa in Purushapura (modern-day Peshawar), believed to have been one of the tallest structures of the ancient world. Though the original stupa no longer survives, Chinese pilgrims like Hiuen Tsang later described its immense size and spiritual importance, indicating its lasting impact on Buddhist pilgrimage and architectural history.