History of Indian Administrative System

History of Indian administration traces its earliest known form to the monarchical system. Since the earliest times, the monarchical system was used in public administration in the execution of governmental functions. In the long history of Indian administration, a number of administrative organisations rose and fell. However, there are two basic features of the Indian administrative system which continued right down the ages- the importance of the villages as a primary unit and co-ordination between the two opposite trends of centralisation and decentralisation. To put it in a nutshell the present administration is a developed form of the old administrative system.

Abundant sources are available to get a clear picture of the history of Indian administrative system. A lot of information regarding the organisation and functions of Indian administration is obtained from Vedic literature, Buddhist treatises, Jain literatures, Dharmasastras, Indian Puranas, Ramayana, Mahabharata, Manu Smriti, Sukra Niti and Arthashastra.

The powers of administering the states were centralised in the hands of the king during the ancient period in India. During the Vedic period the king was assisted in his work by many officers. He was surrounded by a circle of his friends and principal officers. There is a reference regarding this in the two epics of Ramayana and Mahabharata. A similar reference is also to be found in Manu Smriti and Sukra Niti. In Kautilya`s Arthashastra is obtained a detailed account about the offices of the state for the first time in the history of India. By this time administrative system was fully developed. Thus the development of the ancient Indian administration had reached its peak during the reigns of Chandragupta Maurya and Ashoka. Mauryan administrative institutions were further developed during the period of the Guptas. Their period witnessed multifarious activities in the field of excellent administration.

The decentralisation process had started in ancient India. As a result of this, empires were divided into provinces, provinces into districts and districts into urban and rural centres from administrative angle. During the ancient period state administration was divided into numerous departments. In Vedic times the number of such departments was limited. Gradually, the number of such departments increased and their jurisdiction extended. For this we get many references can be obtained from Vedic literatures and subsequent sources. In ancient Indian administration there is also found a description of the principles of public administration. Thus, the principle of hierarchy had been given a practical shape and seeds of co-ordination were present between different departments. Such a full-fledged administrative system existed in the reigns of Chandragupta Maurya and Ashoka. Great emphasis was placed on observation and inspection along with the principle of hierarchy.

Like the present day personnel system mention is made in ancient administration system of the recruitment, qualifications, salaries, leave, pension etc., of government employees. At that time merit, efficiency and being a member of the elite group were given special emphasis. During the time there existed the organisation of a central office where all the government records were kept. This was like the secretariat of the government, in which various government functionaries, including officers worked. Mention of such an office is found in Mauryan times and Chola kingdom. The king appointed personal secretary as well. In brief, the main function of the central office was the control and inspection of provincial, regional and local government.

In brief, it can be said that the present Indian administration is the result of a rich legacy and continuity. It is true to say that the steps of its evolution are someway or the other connected with the past. However, the existing administrative system in India may be said to be the contribution of the British government.

In the Indian Administrative System in ancient period, different systems of administration are found to have existed at different periods. The earliest reference can be traced to the Indus Valley civilization. From excavations, scholars have come to the conclusion that government in Mohenjodaro and Harappa was systematic. In the Indus Valley civilization there can be found planned roads and drainage which shows that in cities there existed a municipal government which looked after the needs and made systematic arrangements for the cities. Moreover, the entire area covered by the civilization contained one type of house, a common system of weights and measures and a common script.

Administration in Vedic Period : The Indus Valley civilization was followed by the Vedic period. In the Rig Vedic period administrative units were known as `Kul,` `Gram` and `Vish`. Gram or the village consisted of the neighboring households. In the political system of the Rig Vedic period the smallest unit was the family. The eldest person in the family became its head. The village consisted of a group of families. The head of the village was known as `Gramini` who acted as the administrative head. A group of villages was known as the `Vish` and its head was `Vishpati`. Numerous `Vishas` constituted a `Jan` whose key officer was known as `Gopa`. This was an important office and usually the king himself became the `Gopa`.

Government in the Rig Vedic period was monarchical. The office of the king was hereditary. But the kings were not despotic and they had to take an oath at the time of coronation to work in the interest of the people. The king as well as his subjects were bound by `Dharmas` or rule of law which was a code of duties. To assist the king in administration there were various officers. There is also a mention in Rig Vedic period of two democratic bodies known as the `Sabha` and the `Samiti`, which controlled the king. The `Sabha` was an elite institution and worked as the council of elders while the `Samiti` was a public body.

Administration in Post-Vedic Period : This period witnessed the rise of powerful kingdoms. There was an increase in the number of officers assisting the king in the administration. The chief of such council was known as the `Mukhyamatya`. There existed as in the previous period `Sabha` and `Samiti` as institutions to limit despotism of the king. The responsibility of local government was entrusted to a special minister. The head of judicial administration was the king himself who was assisted by other officers.

Administration in Epic Period : Epic period refers to the time of the two great Indian epics, the Ramayana and Mahabharata. In the Ramayana period the form of government was monarchical. Administration was sufficiently developed. The head of administration was the king. To advise him in matters of the state and government, there used to be ministers and councillors. During the Mahabharata period the state has been called `Saptanghi` and the principal form of government was monarchy. From the point of view of administration there used to be a council of ministers and officers.

Administration in Buddhist Period : After the Battle at Kurukshetra, large empires began to fade away and several republican states, `Mahajanapadas`, emerged. Sixteen Mahajanapadas including Kasi, Kosala, Kuru, Anga, Avanti and Gandhara came into being. In the republics the real power belonged to `Sabhas` which included the common people as well as the elite. The king was the head of the republic and was elected for a fixed period and was accountable for his action to the council or `Sabha.`

Administration in Gupta Period : The Gupta kings built their administration on the institutions inherited by them but made certain suitable changes. The Gupta kings administered their huge empire, both in the centre and the provinces, in a systematic manner. This period followed monarchical form of government and the king was assisted by a council of ministers. The entire central administration was organized into departments which were managed by various officers. The empire was divided for the sake of administrative convenience into provinces which were divided into regions which were further divided into `Vishyas`. The smallest administrative unit was the `Gram` which was headed by the `Gramin` and there was `Gram Sabha` to assist him.

Administration in Rajput Period : The prevalent form of government during this period was monarchical and to assist the king there used to be a council of ministers. The state was divided into smaller units, the biggest of which was `Prant`. It should be noted that during this period the popular control over the Gram Panchayat had decreased and their importance was reduced.

Indian administrative system in Muslim period brought about a change in the indigenous system of administration. The Muslim rule in India was established and consolidated by the Delhi Sultanate. The Sultanate was essentially a theocracy in which the Sultan was endowed with both the powers i.e. religious and temporal. He was the supreme executive, legislative and judicial authority. Besides he was the chief commander of the army and appointed the military generals as well as the high officers of the civil departments. He was a despot, exercising all kinds of powers. Their avowed object was to rule the country as per the tenets of the Holy Quran and to propagate Islam.

Ministers in Muslim Administration : The Sultan was assisted by a council of six ministers in the day to day administration of the country. They were his subordinates who could be appointed and dismissed at his will. Some Sultans used to appoint Naib-ul-Mulk who acted as the deputy of the Sultan for all purposes. He was in charge of the military organisation. The following were the Ministers: Wazir, Diwan-i-Rasalat, Diwan-i-Insha, Diwan-i-Ariz, Sadr-us-Sadur and Diwan-i-Qaza.

Revenue under Muslim Administration :  The Sultan had five main sources of revenue. They were as follows: Zakat, Jizya, Kharaj, Ushr, Khams.

Army Administration under Muslim Rule : A huge army was maintained by the Sultanate. It consisted of four varieties of soldiers: permanent, soldiers recruited by the Sultan; soldiers offered by the Provincial Governors and nobles; soldiers recruited during the times of war; Muslim volunteers enlisted for fighting Jihad or Holy war. The army was composed of cavalry, infantry and elephants. Among these, the cavalry formed the backbone of the army. Army was under the control of Diwan-i-Ariz.

Judiciary System under Muslim Rule : The Sultan was the fountain head of justice of the land. A separate department known as Diwan-i-Qaza was functioning to dispense justice. Sultan was the highest court of appeal. Capital punishments were meted out only after obtaining the sovereign`s consent. The Sultan held his court twice a week and dispensed justice as per the advices given by the Chief Qazi in the temporal affairs and by the Sadr-us-Sudur on religious affairs. Chief Qazi was the highest judicial officer. The cases were decided in accordance with the Islamic law. Qazis were appointed in provinces, districts and towns for rendering justice to the people. City Magistrates were appointed for apprehending the criminals and trying the cases. Kotwals were also appointed for city administration. The Criminal Code was very severe.

Provincial Administration under Muslim Rule :  The empire was divided into three varieties of provinces. The first category consisted of the Iqtar which were under the command of Muqti. The second category was composed of newly conquered provinces under military Governors known as Walis. The last variety comprised of the suppressed and subdued Hindu kingdoms. The Delhi Sultanate had 23 provinces during the apex of its glory under Muhammad bin Tughlaq. The provincial administration was similar to that of the Central Government. The provinces were divided into Shiqs and each Shiq was placed under the control of Shiqdar. The next unit was Pargana which was under the control of Amil. The last unit was the village and it was administered by a Panchayat. Chowkidar and Patwari were the officers working in villages.

The Mughal rule followed along the same lines. The king was the head of the Mughal Empire and its administration. The rulers had firm faith in the doctrine of Divine Rights. The Mughal rulers lived in luxury and their style was magnificent and prosperous. During this period the nobility played a significant role in their administration. The Council of Ministers was like that of Sultanate period as was the system of provincial administration. Impartial judiciary was proscribed during this period.