Introduction

Islamic Philosophy is concerned with finding a balance between reason and faith. The relation between religion and philosophy is quite deeply ingrained in the Islamic tradition. Islamic theologians are of the opinion that there is no separate body of Islamic philosophy, and the nearest approach to it is the orthodox system of theology. Since all philosophy was ultimately based on the Holy Quran and Sunna, the theologians refused to accept philosophy as something distinct from religion. However, the philosophers claim that Islamic philosophy does indeed form a separate branch of study, distinct from theology. They advance a number of influences which went into the making of the Islamic philosophy and giving it shape. These influences include Greek philosophy, which the early Muslims came into contact with after the conquests of Alexandria, Syria and Jundishapur, pre-Islamic Indian Philosophy and Iranian philosophy. However, arguments notwithstanding, one aspect which clearly stands out is that Islamic Philosophy is clearly rooted in the religion, and conforms to the Quran, with its detailed analysis of the nature of reality and advice on how to live, and the practices of the Prophet, the Sunna.

As far as India is concerned, it is a land of several religions and beliefs. Thus Islamic philosophy entered the country with the coming of religion itself. Islamic philosophy has been seen to have developed in two distinct phases, broadly the early and later phase.

Development of Islamic Philosophy

Development of Islamic philosophy, despite the hurdles it faced from the orthodox theologians, continued unabated down the ages. It usually developed in small groups. The Muslim students of the subject were not in any way fanatical disciples of Islam, and, in philosophical discussions and even in the work of teaching, Muslims and Christians seem to have associated on equal terms. It was seen in the course of its development that philosophy was quite often associated with medicine. The development of Islamic philosophy owed much to the many small groups which were developing their own principles and interpretations down the ages. Philosophy must have been cultivated at many centres in the Islamic world. Islamic philosophy has been greatly influenced by Greek thought and has in turn influenced a number of European concepts and philosophies.

There is evidence of men versed in the philosophical sciences at a small town near the south coast of the Caspian Sea. It is believed that it was a man from this town who gave the first instruction in philosophy to a boy who later became in the opinion of many the greatest of all the philosophers writing in Arabic. This was Avicenna, or Abu Ali ibn Sina. He began his education by memorizing the Holy Quran and Arabic poetry, before passing on to jurisprudence. He was introduced to Aristotelian logic at the age of fourteen and he went on to devour all the scientific and philosophical books he could get hold of. He studied medicine and obtained so thorough a theoretical grasp that practising physicians came to read medical books under his guidance. Avicenna was greatly influenced by Al Farabi in his understanding of metaphysics and it was the direct influence of the older Islamic philosopher which led him to adopt so similar a general position in philosophy. In considering Avicenna as a philosopher, it must also be remembered that his Canon of Medicine holds an outstanding place in medical science, and that his writings on other sciences were also influential. His philosophy is contained chiefly in two books the Shifa and the Najat of which the first is a great compendium including sciences as well as philosophy, while the second is an abridged version of the philosophical parts of the longer work. The general position is Neoplatonic. God is the One, the "necessarily existent", from whom everything emanates. Beneath him are the pure intelligences and the spheres. The conception of the human soul is essentially Aristotelian, but modified apparently in accordance with the discussions and interpretations of later Greek Platonizing philosophers. Like most of the other Islamic philosophers he explains the possibility of prophethood, but where al-Farabi had connected prophethood with the highest form of imagination, Avicenna links it with the highest part of the soul, the intellect. Avicenna also had a mystic side. His mysticism and his philosophy constitute a single integrated system. The extent of his mystical writings shows that the mystical life meant much to him. It was presumably the source of his intellectual energy. Because of this personal religious attitude Avicenna has been held by one of the leading modern scholars to come closer to the spirit of Plato than other philosophers whose style is more Platonic and less Aristotelian.

Though Avicenna was one of the greatest philosophers, his philosophical tradition did not go unchallenged. The 11th-century theologian and mystic al Ghazali mounted a critique of philosophy, specifically Avicenna`s that is rich in argument and insight. Al Ghazali`s Incoherence of the Philosophers provoked a response by Averroes ibn Rushd entitled the Incoherence of the Incoherence, in which al-Ghazali`s arguments are countered point for point. Averroes was best known, however, as an interpreter of Aristotle and exerted great influence on all subsequent thinkers in the Aristotelian tradition.

In the later Middle Ages the historian and philosopher Ibn Khaldun produced a sharp critique of culture, and the elaboration of metaphysics and epistemology was carried on in the theosophical schools of Islamic mysticism.

Among the philosophical groups which developed, mention may be made here of a group in Baghdad towards the end of the tenth century, which met in the house of Abu-Sulayman Al Mantiqi, known as the logician, as-Sustani (d. after 1001). Unlike most philosophers Abu Sulayman seems to have held no official position, though he was in favour at the Buwayhid court. Some of the discussions in his house have been recorded by his younger friend Abu-Hayyan At Tawhidi who was an important literary figure, though he earned his livelihood as a secretary to viziers and other court-officials in Baghdad and the provinces.

Another man who deserves to be mentioned is Mis Kawayh (or Ibn Miskawayh). He was a Persian and served as secretary to members of the Buwayhid reigning family and their viziers. He is best known for a lengthy universal history, of which the concluding part has been translated into English as The Eclipse of the Abbasid Caliphate. Among his other extant works is a book of philosophical theology, dealing with the being of God, the being of the soul and the nature of prophethood. It is not an important book in the intellectual history of Islam, but it is an interesting example of how thinkers who were primarily philosophers nevertheless accepted a framework of Islamic conceptions. For instance, the last section of this book explains in terms of a philosophical account of the soul how prophethood is possible. Philosophically, however, his most influential work is undoubtedly his Correction of Morals, which is an explanation of a complete system of morals on a mainly Platonic basis. This book was used by al Ghazali and many other later writers.

Development of Islamic Philosophy between 1250 and 1900

In the development of Islamic Philosophy between 1250 and1900, two distinct phases can be recognised. This entire span is divided into two at about the year 1500. In this period, there was seen a decline of philosophical output and a dependence on mere commentary and glosses of already existing works.

In the earlier part of this period, there was a strong state in Egypt under the Mamluks, and this controlled Syria as well. In the east the Mongols continued to rule Transoxiana, and under Tamerlane, spread westwards once more. Persia was added to their dominions, and there were temporary invasions of Iraq and Syria. Between Egypt-Syria and Transoxiana various lesser dynasties maintained a degree of peace over smaller or larger areas. The most important was that of the Mongol Il Khans of Persia. Without a Caliph, Baghdad had become a provincial city. Iraq was a province of Persia, though something of its old cultural life continued until the invasions of Timur when it was practically destroyed. However, many centres of Islamic learning had developed in Persia, Central Asia, Afghanistan and India. Thus the vast political upheavals produced less dislocation in intellectual life and in social structure than might have been expected. There were indeed great changes, but surprisingly, much managed to survive the storm.

The pattern of the four centuries from 1500 to 1900 is much tidier. Three empires developed. That of the Ottoman Turks, with its capital at Constantinople (from 1453), eventually spread its rule over Syria and Egypt, much of Iraq and most of North Africa, and lasted until the First World War. Persia was united by the Safavid dynasty (Shah Ismail, 1502-24), and sometimes had parts of Iraq added to it. Baghdad was now on the frontier between these two empires, and changed hands several times. The third empire was that of the Mughals in India. It was shorter-lived than the other two. It began to decline before other Indian states about 1700, and then receded as the British East India Company advanced, until it was extinguished in 1857. These empires gave a certain external stability to the Islamic world.

During these centuries, theological and philosophical thought increased considerably in volume. However, its quality is usually believed to have declined. One of the signs of this alleged decline is the lack of originality. Instead of fresh works like those of al Juwayni and Fakhr ad Din ar Razi, the chief effort of the theologians seems to have gone into the production of commentaries and super-commentaries and glosses on earlier works. One notable instance of this is The Articles of Belief, for which about a dozen commentaries and thirty glosses were written. These are mainly in Arabic, but an Islamic religious literature was also springing up in Turkish, Persian, Urdu and other languages. There were a few original works being composed, but these were mainly in the form of creeds of varying lengths, probably intended from the first to be material for commentaries. The writing of commentaries was probably encouraged by the fact that it was the normal practice to use a text as the basis for lectures. Such a practice in itself, however, does not rule out originality. Some have deemed this state of affairs as rigid conservatism.

Before this rigidity is condemned outright, an attempt ought to be made to discover whether it is performing any important social function. A distinction can be made between the attainment of a definitive creed and rigidity in the interpretation of articles of belief. The problem is therefore whether there is any justification for such theological rigidity as distinct from creedal fixity. It is conceivable that in the disturbed political circumstances of the period rigidity in theology helped to give stability to the social structure. Perhaps it helped to compensate for the loss of even theoretical unity. It is possible too that the rigidity appears greater to us than it really is, since it is easy for the modern scholar to transform his own boredom into a characteristic of the material. In the present survey, of course, there is no possibility of saying anything final about this point, since much further study is required.

Reasons for decline of Philosophical works : On the assumption that the period, especially from 1500 onwards was one, not merely of theological rigidity, but of general cultural decline and decadence, theories have been put forward to account for the phenomena on which these judgements are based. One view is that the cause is to be looked for in the Mongol invasions and the devastation they caused. This has certainly much to do with the relative cultural decline of some centres and regions, Baghdad, for example. However, Egypt, on the other hand, was never invaded by the Mongols, and therefore the Mongols cannot be the sole cause.

Another cause that has been suggested is Ottoman domination. There may be some truth in this as regards the Arabic-speaking world, practically all of which came under Ottoman domination. But it is doubtful if even in these regions it can be the whole truth, since Persia and the eastern Islamic lands, where there once had been a high level of culture, never came under Ottoman sway.

Another factor which, though it cannot explain all the phenomena, may yet be of some importance is the extent to which the Ulema had become dependent on the governments. The Inquisition of 833 to 849 had made it clear that the class of Ulema was ultimately in the power of the government. The Inquisition was brought to and end due to reasons quite unconnected to the Ulema. Both in jurisprudence and in theology one of the functions of rigidity is probably to strengthen the hands of individuals who are prepared to hold out against some forms of governmental pressure and to prevent a betrayal of the general position of the Ulema by individuals who have succumbed to governmental inducements.

Where there is a rigid intellectual structure the limits of individual discretion are greatly reduced, and something is undoubtedly thereby attained. Whether this was the best course in the circumstances cannot be decided without much investigation. It is clear, however, that, even if rigidity at some periods had a positive function, it also had disadvantages. In particular it had made it difficult for the Ulema to adapt jurisprudence and theology to the needs of recent centuries.

The philosophical theologians with their interest in philosophy and their method of commenting on texts, seem to have been largely cut off from the real springs of the spiritual life and restricted to already canalized ideas. Despite this apparent weakness of the philosophical theologians, they have a positive achievement to their credit, which should never be forgotten. They preserved a framework of outward conduct and intellectual dogma within which it was possible for men to live lives of moral uprightness and true religious devotion.

Islamic Philosophical Schools

Among the various Islamic schools of philosophy, the most important ones are- Illuminationist Philosophy (Hikmat al Ishraq), Transcendent Theosophy (Hikmat Mutaaliah), Sufi philosophy and Traditionalist School.

Illuminationist philosophy : This school of Islamic philosophy is a combination of ancient Iranian philosophy with Avicenna`s philosophy. A number of innovative ideas were introduced into the discipline by its founder Shahab al Din Suhrawardi. This school is said to be influenced by Neoplatonism. One of the biggest achievements of this school is the idea of `decisive necessity` developed by Suhrawardi while refuting the Greek logic.

Transcendent Theosophy : This school was founded by Mulla Sadra in the 17th century. It made remarkable headway in providing a philosophical viewpoint when discussing the nature of reality. Sadra`s contribution in bringing about the transition from essentialism to existentialism is believed to be immense. This was the belief that existence is more important than essence since something has to exist first before it can acquire any essence.

Sufi Philosophy : Sufi philosophy essentially deals with the mysticism present in Islam. The philosophical traditions of Sufism are associated with Sunni and Shia Islam. Sufi philosophy, like all other major philosophical traditions, has several sub-branches including metaphysics and cosmology as well as several unique concepts. It basically deals with the ways to achieve complete union with the Almighty and the ecstasy gained from such union.

Traditionalist School :  This school of Islamic philosophy is also known as Integral Traditionalism or Perennialism. Integral Tradition does not have a human origin and may be considered as principles revealed from Heaven and binding man to his divine origin, or to what was called a `transcendent unity`. Perennialists claim that the historically separated traditions share not only the same divine origin but are based on the same metaphysical principles, sometimes called Philosophia Perennis.

Islamic philosophy in the current scenario is still an active component of Islam. A number of philosophers have continued to discuss and debate the philosophical aspects of Islam, and in this context, a major contribution was made by Allama Muhammad Iqbal. He brought about a great Islamic philosophy in India in the 20th century. His work `The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam` is a milestone in the modern political philosophy of Islam. Other major Islamic philosophers who have enriched the field of Islamic philosophy in contemporary times are Riaz Ahmed Gohar Shahi, Ayatullah Ruhollah Khomeini, Murtaza Motahhari, Sayyid Abul Ala Maududi, Fazlur Rahman, Javed Ahmad Ghami and many others.