Vaisheshika is one of the six Hindu schools of philosophy (orthodox Vedic systems) of India. Historically, it has been closely associated with the Hindu school of logic, Nyaya. Vaisheshika adopts a form of atomism and contends that every object in the physical universe are reducible to a finite number of atoms. Originally proposed by the sage Kanada (or Kana-bhuk, literally meaning `atom-eater`) from the c. 6th century B.C. Nyaya and Vaisheshika are considered sister philosophies. Both state that by leading virtuous life and remaining on the side of Dharma, one will have both growth and fulfillment in life (Abhyudaya) as well as realisation of the highest good - Liberation (Nishreyasa). These systems are dualistic in their conception of God (Supreme Self), Jiva (individual self), and the universe. However, in its classical form, the Vaisheshika school differed from the Nyaya in one fundamental respect: where Nyaya accepted four sources of valid knowledge, the Vaisheshika accepted only perception and inference. Although not among Kanada`s original philosophies, later Vaisheshika atomism also differs from the atomic theory of modern science by claiming that the functioning of atoms was guided or directed by the will of the Supreme Being. This is thus a theistic form of atomism. Vaisheshika philosophers tried to develop a theory to explain the properties of materials as the interaction of different types of atoms that make up the material. The Vaisheshika system of Philosophy categorises all objects of valid knowledge or padartha into six.
The categories or padartha in Vaisheshika philosophy
According to the Vaisheshika school, every thing that exists, which can be cognised, and can be named, are pad?rthas (literal meaning: the meaning of a word), the objects of experience. All objects of experience can be classified into six categories - dravya (substance), guna (quality), karma (activity), s?m?nya (generality), vi?esa (particularity) and samav?ya (inherence). Later Vai?heshikas (?r?dhara and Udayana and ?iv?ditya) added one more category abh?va (non-existence). The first three categories are defined as artha (which can perceived) and they have real objective existence. The last three categories are defined as budhyapeksam (product of rational discrimination) and they are logical categories.
Dravya (substance): The substances are conceived as 9 in number. They comprise, prthva (earth), ap (water), tejas (fire), vayu (air), kaa, kala (time), dik (space), stman (self) and manas (mind). The first five are called bh?tas, substances having some specific qualities so that they can be perceived by one or the other external senses.
Guna (quality): The Vaiheshika Satra mentions 17 gunas (qualities), to which Prasastapada added another 7. While a substance is capable of existing independently by itself, a guna (quality) cannot exist so. The original 17 gunas (qualities) include, rapa (colour), rasa (taste), gandha (smell), spara (touch), samkhya (number), parimana (size), prthaktva (inidividuality), samyoga (conjunction), vibhaga (disjunction), paratva (priority), aparatva (posteriority), buddhi (knowledge), sukha (pleasure), duhkha (pain), iccha (desire), dvesa (aversion) and prayatna (effort). To these Praastapada added gurutva (heaviness), dravatva (fluidity), sneha (viscosity), dharma (merit), adharma (demerit), abda (sound) and samkasra (faculty).
Karma (activity): The karmas (activities) like gunas (qualities) have no separate existence, they belong to the substances. But while a quality is a permanent feature of a substance, an activity is a transient one. kaa, kala (time), dik (space) and ?tman (self), though substances, are free of karma (activity).
Samanya (generality): Since there exists plurality of substances, relations are bound to exist among them. When a property is found common to many substances, it is called samanya.
Viesa (particularity): By means of viaesa , one is able to perceive substances as varying from one another. As the ultimate atoms are infinite, so are the viaesas.
Samavya (inherence): Kanada defined samavaya as the relation between the cause and the effect. Prasastapada defined it as the relationship existing between the substances that are inseparable, standing to one another in the relation of the container and the contained. The relation of samavaya is not perceivable, but only inferable from the inseparable connection of the substances.
The atomic theory in Vaisheshika philosophy
The early vaiaheshika texts presented the following syllogism to prove that all objects i.e. the four bhatas, prthva (earth), ap (water), tejas (fire) and vayu (air) are made of indivisible param?nus (atoms):
Assume that the matter is not made of indivisible atoms, and that it is continuous. Take a stone. One can divide this up into infinitely many pieces (because matter is continuous). Now, the Himalayan mountain range also has infinitely umpteen pieces, so one may build another Himalayan mountain range with the infinite number of pieces that one has. One begins with a stone and ends up with the Himalayas, which is obviously preposterous - so the original assumption that matter is continuous must be wrong, and so all objects must be made up of a finite number of param?nus (atoms).
According to the vaiaheshika school, the trasarenu (dust particles visible in a sunbeam coming through a small window hole) are the smallest mahat (perceivable) particles and defined as tryanukas (triads). These are composed of three parts, each of which are defined as dvyanuka (dyad). The dvyanukas are conceived as build up of two parts, each of which are defined as param?nu (atom). The param?nus (atoms) are indivisible and eternal, it can neither be created nor destroyed. Each param?nu (atom) possesses its own distinct vi?esa (individuality).
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