Introduction

Krishnattam is a traditional form of Sanskrit theatre mainly practiced in the Kerala state of India. The word Krishnattam or Krishnanattam mainly means `Krishna enactment`. It is a kind of dance drama which depicts the story of Krishna in a series of eight plays and was created by Manaveda, the then Zamorin Raja of Calicut in northern Kerala.

Evolution of Krishnattam

Its forerunner was the Ashtapadiyattam dance-drama in which local dance and music had established a happy blending. This is based on the Krishna lore and ashtapadis i.e. `eight-verse` songs of Jayadeva`s Sanskrit Gitagovinda. This was mainly done in the twelfth century. This form became extinct, transfiguring its legacy into the new Krishnattam.

In 1653, Manaveda Samutiri composed Krishnagiti i.e. `Krishna Lyrics` in Sanskrit. This was inspired by Jayadeva, presenting Krishna`s whole story in eight parts, with many more characters. The stage rendition of this poem became known as Krishnattam. The eight stories on Krishna`s life can be mentioned as Avataram or his birth as an avatar, Kaliyamardanam i.e. `Kaliya Crushed`, Rasakrida i.e. `Ras Sport`, Kamsavadham i.e. `Slaying of Kamsa`, Svayamvaram i.e. `Choice of Groom`, Banayud-dham i.e. `War with Bana`, Vividavadham i.e. `Slaying of Vivida`, and Svargarohanam i.e. `Ascent to Heaven`.

All these parts are presented over several hours on eight nights in the precincts of the famous Srikrishna temple at Guruvayur, Malappuram district, as a votive offering to the presiding deity by pilgrims. Rich devotees may sponsor performances which are considered a means to attain their prayers. The troupe engaged in this art is the only one of its kind, and maintained by the temple, which gives the actors systematic training from a young age. C. Sankaran Nair exposed this rare art to the rest of India after Independence by taking it on tour outside Kerala.

Costumes and Make up in Krishnattam

Costume and make up in Krishnattam form the basic part as it makes the act more effective. The costumes are made by the teachers and artists themselves. There is a basic difference between male and female costumes.

The dress of male characters comprises of:
• A stiff gathered petticoat.
• A gathered white skirt with orange and black horizontal stripes towards the bottom.
• Bells attached to leather pads in order to tie below the knees.
• A long-sleeved shirt, open at the back that is secured by ties.
• A breast-plate
• Chest ornaments made of beads and fresh flowers
• A girdle
• Upper arm and wrist ornaments
• One shawl or more with a mirror that is attached at each end
• Ear and forehead ornaments and
• A headdress.

The characters who are dressed in the above mentioned basic costumes distinguish themselves by several means: colour and design of make-up and mark, design of headdress and weapon or any other stage property.

The costumes of the female characters include:
• A long white gathered skirt with red border
• A long sleeved blouse, open in the back and secured by ties
• A girdle
• Ornaments for the arm
• A wooden breast plate with the breasts covered in red cloth and with ornamentation above and below it.
• Beads
• Ear and forehead jewelleries.
• The dancer ties onto his head an item that is made of cotton covered with black cloth. This resembles hair wrapped in a bun. Over this bun a piece of cloth is draped that is secured at the forehead with an ornament leaving the remaining cloth to fall over the shoulders and down the back. Female characters tie strings of bells around their ankles which is called chilanka.

The actors use three to four colours for basic make-up: pazhuppu, an orange with more red than yellow, minukku, an orange with more of yellow than red, Paccha, a particular green shade which has more yellow than blue. For blue they use powder blue, for yellow manayola is used, for red chhaillyam and cencillyam is used. Black and white colours are also used. The chutti artist applies a chutti if he has to wear it. The chutti has two white borders which are extended from ear to ear along the jaw and chin line. The `pachha` makeup is done on the main characters like `Vasudeva,` ` Kamsa,` `Nandagopa,` `Uddhava,` `Krishna,` `Arjuna,` `Jarasandha,` and `Sisupala.` The `kathi` make-up is done on evil characters. The pazhuppu make-up is done on Balarama, Bhima and Lord Shiva. The female characters don the `minukku` makeup. The pachha, kathi makeup style along with the main female characters wear the `chutti`.

After make up, the process of costuming starts. Below the knees the Chilanka is tied. Thereafter, he wears a cotton underskirt. In preparing the underskirt, two people hold taut, a long piece of quilted material. The actor and the helper together wrap the gathered under slip around his waist and secures it. They wrap the white stripped skirt in the same manner. On each side they place a six-to-eight inch wide panel of material that is trimmed with brocade over the top of the skirt. The upper end of the panel is tucked into the waist band of the underskirt.

In the next stage, the actor puts on long-sleeved shirt which is open at the back as well as fastened with ties. A breast plate is added to this shirt, chest decorations of necklaces and garlands are also added. Again depending on the character one or more long shawls with a mirror at each end and arm ornaments are also used. This mirror is used by the actor to check his make-up throughout the performance. Now finally, his hand is wrapped in a black cloth, wears the ear and forehead ornaments and prays to Lord Vishnu silently.

Head gear is the most sacred part of the Krishnattam costume. Mudi and kiridam are two basic kinds of head dress. There are two types of mudi as well as Kiridam also. The costumes and make in Krishnattam are elaborate and require time and patience to be worn.

Performance of Krishnattam

Performance of Krishnattam is elaborated that requires detailed makeup in order to present the gestures and movements aptly. Krishnattam requires a group of performers and it is performed to the accompaniment of music. Vocalists repeat the lines of the song in order to provide enough time to dancers.

Performance of Krishnattam on First Night : Kelikottu is the first event of Krishnattam. It is carried out by playing drums, gong and cymbals in the evening during daytime at the East Nada of the temple. This is to inform the people in the neighbourhood about the performance that is scheduled to be held in the night. When the rituals are complete the Kali Vilakku is kept in front of performance space in the Temple on the North side of the Sanctum Sanctorum. Some rituals are performed after which Kelikkayyu is performed.

After kelikkayyu, Totayam ritual is performed. Purappatu starts after this which is a piece of pure dance choreography. Krishna or Balarama or both along with other characters, dance with gestures of hand and face and special steps. In Avataram, the first scene is considered as purappatu. In other plays, the scene in which either Krishna or Balarama or both appear first on stage is considered as purappatu. In Kamsavadham, Purappatu takes place in the middle of the play. In Vividhavadham, there are two Purappatu, in the beginning and the other after some time.

Characters in Purappatu : The characters who perform Purappatu for the plays are:
Avataram - Brahma and Bhoomidevi
Kaliyamardanam - Krishna, Balarama, Nanda and Upananda
Rasakrida - Krishna
Kamsavadham - Krishna and Balarama
Swayamvaram - Krishna and Balarama
Banayuddham - Krishna, Satyabhama and Garuda
Vividavadham - Balarama and wives, Krishna, Bhima and Arjuna

With the Avatharam starts the performance. Bhumi Devi apeaks about her worries under the stranglehold of evil to Brahma, the four-faced who promises her immediate relief. In the next scene post marriage, Kamsa the all-caring brother transforms himself into a demon as his life is threatened. He dominates as the devastating power of the evil until Vasudeva promises to give all their unborn children into his hands. Thereafter in the next scene Lord Vishnu descends in his Vishwaroopa and the parents pay him respect. Then follows the pranks of little boy Krishna.

Performance of Krishnattam on Second Night : On the second night Krishna grows up in figure in order to destroy the evil. The stories are narrated in verse and scenes like Poothna Moksham, Bakasura Vadham, Kaliya Mardhanam are depicted in masked dances. The thandava dances of the fighting scenes alternate with the lasya style of the celebrations of his triumphs.

Performance of Krishnattam on Third Night : Rasakreeda takes place on third night depicting one night of erotic bliss on the banks of the Yamuna. Here adolescence blossoms. Essence of romance is presented in a harmonious ensemble that is steeped in feminine grace. The Gopis are played by the males. All the males that play the Gopis display femininity.

Mullappoo Chuttal is a celebrated garland-dance that is performed. The fluid movements of the dancers weave circles, and triangles, in twos and threes. Its patterns unfold like petals of blossoming flowers. Krishna dances in and out of these changing patterns in charming glitter.

Performance of Krishnattam on Fourth Night : Kamsa Vadham is the performance of the fourth night. Swayamvaram is performed on the fifth night enact the marriages of Balarama, and Krishna accepting Rukmini and Sathyabhama, which are really colourful. Banayudham is performed on the sixth night and Vividha Vadham is done on the seventh night. These are famous for the varied masks that depict Krishna`s life. Geethopadesam and the tender tale of Krishna are other beautiful renderings. On the eighth night after the accomplishment of his mission Krishna renounces his life. Swargarohanam follows Avatharam on the ninth day as death is followed by birth.

Last Scene of Krishnattam : All plays end with Dhanasi except Swargarohanam. The characters in the last scene perform Dhanasi by dancing in a particular way accompanied by singing few lines in the fifth padam of the play Kaliyamardanam. The characters who perform Dhanasi are:
Avataram - Krishna and Yasodha
Kaliyamardanam - Krishna and Nandagopa
Rasakrida - Krishna and Balarama
Kamsavadham - Krishna and Balarama
Swayamvaram - Krishna and Satyabhama
Banayuddham - Krishna, Pradyumna and Aniruddha
Vividhavadham - Krishna and Rukmini

Techniques in Performance of Krishnattam : Illustrative hand gestures are not seen during this performance. They occur when the characters are sitting or performing very simple dance steps. The drummers follow the movements of the dancers with appropriate rhythms and sounds. Female characters perform many of the same steps as males though theirs is gentler. Some unusual properties are also used in addition to the usage bows and arrows maces and swords. The actor who portrays Lord Brahma wears two extra wooden arms, Baana has six extra arms, and Garuda has a beak and painted wings.

One scene is a tableau of Krishna and Satyabhaama riding the bird garuda, which opens the play Baanayuddham. The curtain represents a protected place such as a fort or palace. In Svargaaroham two spectacular scenes occur both are in Vaikunta. In the first one lord Vishnu sits wearing a serpent-hooded crown with several deities in the background. In the second Lord Vishnu reclines on his serpent Ananta. Both are played on a special raised, walled and roofed stage used only for these scenes.

Krishnattam dancers also sing along with the singers only once during the entire series of plays. This occurs in the play Raasakirida. Humour is also a part of Krishnattam. The mangalam dance is a dance sequence in which the dancer`s hands move only in the basic hand gesture pattern and there is no emotional expression. The last performance of the season was performed at the Zamorin`s palace that was called the Petti Vechu Kali. The play is concluded by playing a couple of beats on the maddalam just as in the beginning.

The performance of Krishnattam is more lyrical that is highlighted by folk elements and a highly imaginative use of lokadharmi or `realistic` dimensions of performance. The intimacy of the performance contributes to the immediacy thereby enhancing the bhakti of several pilgrims. Krishnattam is a dance oriented theatrical performance.

Rituals in Krishnattam

Rituals in Krishnattam start on the first day of the Krishnattam season. The senior opens the palm leaf manuscript of Krishnagiiti which is an entire series of plays being performed at the palace where the Zamorin was residing. Thereafter it is performed at Guruvaayur Krishna Temple and at other palaces according to the sponsors.

Just when the time appears for the performance, a Brahmin lights the oil lamp and the musicians come to the stage. Along `mundu` is worn with a shorter one that is tied over it. Only a cotton shawl is draped over the shoulders. The senior singers wear turbans that are given to them by the Zamorin in recognition of their talent and service in Krishnattam at temples.

All musicians stand horizontally before the lamp, pick up their instruments, touch them and then each of them touch their forehead. This is a symbol of respect for the sacred sounds that are produced by these instruments. The drum is held on one hand and single sounds are played on that end of the drum which faces stage and then the audience. Thereafter the gathered cloth is taken that is covered over the head. Each drummer hangs his drum around the waist and positions it comfortably over his stomach. A sequence is performed to inform the audience that the performance would begin now.

Thereafter stagehands hold up a curtain with concentric rectangular shape. Behind this curtain several dancers are standing dressed in female attire. They touch the floor which is a mark of respect to Goddess Earth. The singers begin their vocal performance. The pre performance song is followed by a poem which is recited in praise of Lord Vishnu as Guruvayurappan. Before starting each play songs are sung. The music of Krishnattam is sung in Sopana Sangeetham style. The four major talas of Krishnattam music are champa, champata, atanta and panchari.

A tirassiila or a curtain that is held by two persons is brought to the stage. Behind this there are four dancers in female attire who dance the totayam. Thereafter is the Purappadu, in which Krishna or Balarama comes from behind the curtain and perform their stage rituals. The story begins after these rituals are performed.

There is also a simple ritual that is associated with the wearing of a mudi or crown. Whoever places the headdress on the actor`s head (the chutti artist) first gives the actor some water. The actor puts this water on his eyes and feet which is symbolic of washing his face and feet and it is called tottu vandanam. Thereafter he touches the crown with both hands and touches both hands to his forehead which is called `talayil vacchu vandikkuka`. After this the actor chooses his weapon. Then he asks the permission of his teacher to enter the stage thereby requesting his teacher`s blessings for his performance.

Similarity with Kathakali

This art is more sophisticated and differentiated compared to Kutiyattam. Krishnattam`s make-up, costumes, and ornaments look similar to those of Kathakali, with striking variations especially in the case of the painted wooden masks used by certain characters. The dance is lyrical and the story communicated through beautiful choreography, using a few hand gestures and facial expressions. Intimate minimalism is the core of the performance, including the simple treatment of vocal music with restrained use of melodic patterns. The meaning of each word in the text is not interpreted in action as in Kathakali. But the total meaning of a passage is conveyed mainly through dance. The graceful coordination, precision, and elegance with which a group of characters moves cannot be seen in any other form of Kerala. This is well illustrated in the story of Rasakrida where Krishna revels with the Gopis. This is mullappuchuttal, literal meaning of which can be mentioned as `going in a circle like jasmine flowers`. This is a brilliant dance in which the performers move with intricate footwork, creating a sense of the flowers being fastened into a garland.

As in Kathakali, two singers stand behind the acting area and the percussionists share space with them. The main vocalist has a gong-like chengila in his hand on which he keeps time with a stick. The chengila is a round alloy of brass, copper, and lead, specially combined to create the sound. The second vocalist uses the elata Lim i.e. a pair of heavy metal cymbals for timing. The accompanying percussion instruments are maddalams and edakka, drums that provide attractive patterns of rhythmic support to the flow of dance.